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Adolescence: Contemporary Issues And Resources Essay Paper

Educational Gap

The cognitive and psychosocial development of adolescents is variable. Asynchrony among physical, cognitive, and psychosocial development may limit the adolescents’ ability to perceive and judge risk effectively and may result in adolescent views that are incongruous with parents or guardians. Pediatricians can help adolescents to transition through this important developmental period while simultaneously providing parents with appropriate guidance and support.Adolescence: Contemporary Issues And Resources Essay Paper

After completing this article, readers should be able to:

Understand the stages of cognitive and psychosocial adolescent development.

Understand the role of the imaginary audience and the personal fable in adolescent development.

Recognize the implications of early pubertal timing.

Be able to communicate effectively with adolescents and address developmental concerns that may arise.

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Cognitive Development

Adolescence marks the transition from childhood into adulthood. It is characterized by cognitive, psychosocial, and emotional development. Cognitive development is the progression of thinking from the way a child does to the way an adult does.

There are 3 main areas of cognitive development that occur during adolescence. First, adolescents develop more advanced reasoning skills, including the ability to explore a full range of possibilities inherent in a situation, think hypothetically (contrary-fact situations), and use a logical thought process.

Second, adolescents develop the ability to think abstractly. Adolescents move from being concrete thinkers, who think of things that they have direct contact with or knowledge about, to abstract thinkers, who can imagine things not seen or experienced. This allows adolescents to have the capacity to love, think about spirituality, and participate in more advanced mathematics. Youth who remain at the level of a concrete thinker focus largely on physically present or real objects in problem solving and, as a result, may present with difficulty or frustration with schoolwork as they transition throughout high school. Clinicians can help parents recognize this problem to help adolescents adjust to the educational pace.

Adolescents may also experience a personal fable as a result of being able to think more abstractly. The personal fable is built on the fact that if the imaginary audience (peers) is watching and thinking about the adolescent, then the adolescent must be special or different. For decades, this adolescent egocentrism was thought to contribute to the personal fable of invincibility (eg, other adolescents will get pregnant or get sexually transmitted infections) and risk-taking behavior.Adolescence: Contemporary Issues And Resources Essay Paper

What is cognitive development?

Cognitive development refers to the development of the ability to think and reason. Children (6 to 12 years old) develop the ability to think in concrete ways (concrete operations), such as how to combine (addition), separate (subtract or divide), order (alphabetize and sort), and transform (change things such as 5 pennies=1 nickel) objects and actions. They are called concrete because they are performed in the presence of the objects and events being thought about.

Adolescence marks the beginning development of more complex thinking processes (also called formal logical operations) including abstract thinking (thinking about possibilities), the ability to reason from known principles (form own new ideas or questions), the ability to consider many points of view according to varying criteria (compare or debate ideas or opinions), and the ability to think about the process of thinking.Adolescence: Contemporary Issues And Resources Essay Paper

What cognitive developmental changes occur during adolescence?

During adolescence (between 12 and 18 years of age), the developing teenager acquires the ability to think systematically about all logical relationships within a problem. The transition from concrete thinking to formal logical operations occurs over time. Each adolescent progresses at varying rates in developing his or her ability to think in more complex ways. Each adolescent develops his or her own view of the world. Some adolescents may be able to apply logical operations to school work long before they are able to apply them to personal dilemmas. When emotional issues arise, they often interfere with an adolescent’s ability to think in more complex ways. The ability to consider possibilities, as well as facts, may influence decision-making, in either positive or negative ways.

Some common indicators indicating a progression from more simple to more complex cognitive development include the following:

Early adolescence. During early adolescence, the use of more complex thinking is focused on personal decision making in school and home environments, including the following:
The early adolescent begins to demonstrate use of formal logical operations in schoolwork.
The early adolescent begins to question authority and society standards.
The early adolescent begins to form and verbalize his or her own thoughts and views on a variety of topics, usually more related to his or her own life, such as:Adolescence: Contemporary Issues And Resources Essay Paperh
Which sports are better to play
Which groups are better to be included in
What personal appearances are desirable or attractive
What parental rules should be changed
Middle adolescence. With some experience in using more complex thinking processes, the focus of middle adolescence often expands to include more philosophical and futuristic concerns, including the following:
The middle adolescent often questions more extensively.
The middle adolescent often analyzes more extensively.
The middle adolescent thinks about and begins to form his or her own code of ethics (for example, What do I think is right?).
The middle adolescent thinks about different possibilities and begins to develop own identity (for example, Who am I?).
The middle adolescent thinks about and begins to systematically consider possible future goals (for example, What do I want?).
The middle adolescent thinks about and begins to make his or her own plans.
The middle adolescent begins to think long-term.
The middle adolescent’s use of systematic thinking begins to influence relationships with others.
Late adolescence. During late adolescence, complex thinking processes are used to focus on less self-centered concepts as well as personal decision-making, including the following:
The late adolescent has increased thoughts about more global concepts such as justice, history, politics, and patriotism.
The late adolescent often develops idealistic views on specific topics or concerns.
The late adolescent may debate and develop intolerance of opposing views.
The late adolescent begins to focus thinking on making career decisions.
The late adolescent begins to focus thinking on emerging role in adult society.Adolescence: Contemporary Issues And Resources Essay Paper
What encourages healthy cognitive development during adolescence?

The following suggestions will help to encourage positive and healthy cognitive development in the adolescent:

Include adolescents in discussions about a variety of topics, issues, and current events.
Encourage adolescents to share ideas and thoughts with you.
Encourage adolescents to think independently and develop their own ideas.
Assist adolescents in setting their own goals.
Stimulate adolescents to think about possibilities for the future.
Compliment and praise adolescents for well-thought-out decisions.
Assist adolescents in re-evaluating poorly made decisions for themselves.

Several studies have found that adolescents perceive more risk in certain areas than adults but that being aware of the risks fails to stop adolescents from participating in risk-taking behavior. Neuroimaging studies demonstrate that adolescents may experience greater emotional satisfaction with risk-taking behavior. This satisfaction can predispose adolescents to engage in behavior despite being aware of risks. In addition, concrete-thinking adolescents may be unable to understand the consequences of actions (eg, not taking medications), may be unable to link cause and effect in regard to health behavior (eg, smoking, overeating, alcohol, drugs, reckless driving, and early sex), and may not be prepared to avoid risk (eg, having condoms and avoiding riding with intoxicated drivers). Alternatively, youth who feel the personal fable is threatened can present with stress, depression, or multiple psychosomatic symptoms.Adolescence: Contemporary Issues And Resources Essay Paper

Third, the formal operational thinking characteristic of adolescence enables adolescents to think about thinking or meta-cognition. This characteristic allows youth to develop the capacity to think about what they are feeling and how others perceive them. This thought process, combined with rapid emotional and physical changes that occur during puberty, causes most youth to think that everyone is thinking not just about what they are thinking about but about the youth themselves (imaginary audience).Social and emotional development are closely intertwined. Both emotional regulation (remaining in control of emotions) and emotional expression (effective communication about emotions) are necessary ingredients for successful and rewarding interpersonal relationships. Furthermore, advanced cognitive development enhances the quality of interpersonal relationships because it enables youth to better understand the wants, needs, feelings, and motivations of others. Therefore, it comes as no surprise that just as youths’ thoughts, emotions, and identities are becoming more complex during adolescence, their social relationships are becoming more complex as well.

Adolescents will begin to form many different types of relationships, and many of their relationships will become more deeply involved and more emotionally intimate. During children’s younger years, their social sphere included their family, a few friends, a couple teachers, and perhaps a coach or other adult mentor. But during adolescence, teens’ social networks greatly expand to include many more people, and many different types of relationships. Therefore, adolescent social development involves a dramatic change in the quantity and quality of social relationships.

Parents often believe that their children’s social skills are a fundamental part of who they are. Some children are shy while others are outgoing, and with these traits come a particular set of social skills. However, research published in the textbook “Child Psychology” indicates that most of a child’s personality is determined by environmental factors. These environmental inputs are frequently subtle, or occur so early in life that parents fail to notice their influence. Social development plays a central role in children’s adult personalities and there are many ways parents can create an environment that encourages the development of strong social skills.

The process of social development moves adolescents from the limited roles of childhood to the broader roles of adulthood. For young people, this transition includes:
Expanding their social circles. Young children mostly spend time with their family. Their social circle expands slightly as they enter school. By the time they reach adolescence, their networks also can include people from team sports, student organizations, jobs, and other activities. As their social circles expand, adolescents spend less time with their families and may focus more on their peers. Young people also develop a greater capacity to form stronger relationships with adults outside of their families who may function as mentors.
Expanding their social roles. The changes adolescents experience in their brain, emotions, and bodies prime them to take on more complex social roles. Cognitive and emotional development work together to help adolescents have deeper conversations and express their emotions better. Physical development signals that adolescents are becoming adults and that they may become entrusted with greater responsibility. Adolescents may assume new roles, such as taking on a leadership position in school, on a team, or at church; serving as a confidante; or being a romantic partner. Adolescence: Contemporary Issues And Resources Essay Paper

Building new connections and establishing identities outside of the context of the family is a normal part of healthy development. Interacting with people outside of the family circle can teach adolescents how to maintain healthy relationships in different contexts and identify roles they can play in the broader community. Still, it is important to remember that adolescents will need support as they experience these new roles. Engaging in role-playing and rehearsing strategies modeled by peer and adult mentors may help adolescents practice cooperation, communication, problem-solving, and decision-making skills, as well as tactics to resist peer pressure.1

One aspect of social development that promotes having a broad social network is the tendency of adolescents to become more aware of how other people feel. The ability to empathize and to appreciate the unique differences among people increases in adolescence. Adolescents often learn to take other people’s feelings into account, be compassionate about the suffering of others, listen actively, and interpret nonverbal cues. Although youth typically begin to express some complex emotions early in life,2 adolescents start to examine their inner experiences and express their emotions verbally. However, because the prefrontal cortex is not fully developed until early adulthood, adolescents often find it challenging to interpret body language and facial expressions. As the prefrontal cortex develops and the capacity for abstract thinking grows, adolescents will be able to empathize more deeply with others.

Younger children will often use the word “friend” to refer to any other child whom they happen to know. However, as children mature and become adolescents they begin to differentiate friends from acquaintances, indicating a more mature understanding of the qualitatively different ways to know another person. Likewise, youth develop the capacity to form closer, more intimate relationships with others. They also begin to form romantic attachments; and, as the desire for a romantic relationship increases, youth may begin to question their sexual orientation and gender identity.Adolescence: Contemporary Issues And Resources Essay Paper

Youth must also learn to balance multiple relationships that compete for their time, energy, and attention. Instead of just a single teacher and coach as in grade school, there are now several teachers and several coaches each with different requirements and priorities. Higher education and gainful employment also require increasingly sophisticated social skills such as the ability to form cooperative relationships with classmates in order to complete group projects or assignments; learning to interact with their boss in an appropriately deferential and respectful manner; or working alongside a diverse set of co-workers in a team-like atmosphere.

New communication technologies enable youth to create and to maintain social bonds in completely different ways: e.g., email, chat rooms, mobile phones with “texting,” online social networks such as Facebook® and Twitter™, video communication such as Skype®, and online gaming. These technologies have dramatically expanded the size and complexity of social networks by: 1) changing the way youth relate to one another, 2) increasing the amount of time spent staying connected with one another and, 3) redefining what it mean to be a “friend.” In fact, it is quite possible to have a “virtual” friendship without ever having direct face-to-face personal contact. Parents are often amazed and confused by these vastly different means of socializing and connecting with others.

Adolescents continue to refine their sense of self as they relate to others. Erikson referred to the task of the adolescent as one of identity versus role confusion. Thus, in Erikson’s view, an adolescent’s main questions are “Who am I?” and “Who do I want to be?” Some adolescents adopt the values and roles that their parents expect for them. Other teens develop identities that are in opposition to their parents but align with a peer group. This is common as peer relationships become a central focus in adolescents’ lives.Adolescence: Contemporary Issues And Resources Essay Paper

As adolescents work to form their identities, they pull away from their parents, and the peer group becomes very important (Shanahan, McHale, Osgood, & Crouter, 2007). Despite spending less time with their parents, most teens report positive feelings toward them (Moore, Guzman, Hair, Lippman, & Garrett, 2004). Warm and healthy parent-child relationships have been associated with positive child outcomes, such as better grades and fewer school behavior problems, in the United States as well as in other countries (Hair et al., 2005).

It appears that most teens don’t experience adolescent storm and stress to the degree once famously suggested by G. Stanley Hall, a pioneer in the study of adolescent development. Only small numbers of teens have major conflicts with their parents (Steinberg & Morris, 2001), and most disagreements are minor. For example, in a study of over 1,800 parents of adolescents from various cultural and ethnic groups, Barber (1994) found that conflicts occurred over day-to-day issues such as homework, money, curfews, clothing, chores, and friends. These types of arguments tend to decrease as teens develop (Galambos & Almeida, 1992).

Social Changes

Parents. Although peers take on greater importance during adolescence, family relationships remain important too. One of the key changes during adolescence involves a renegotiation of parent–child relationships. As adolescents strive for more independence and autonomy during this time, different aspects of parenting become more salient. For example, parents’ distal supervision and monitoring become more important as adolescents spend more time away from parents and in the presence of peers. Parental monitoring encompasses a wide range of behaviors such as parents’ attempts to set rules and know their adolescents’ friends, activities, and whereabouts, in addition to adolescents’ willingness to disclose information to their parents (Stattin & Kerr, 2000[1]). Psychological control, which involves manipulation and intrusion into adolescents’ emotional and cognitive world through invalidating adolescents’ feelings and pressuring them to think in particular ways (Barber, 1996[2]), is another aspect of parenting that becomes more salient during adolescence and is related to more problematic adolescent adjustment.Adolescence: Contemporary Issues And Resources Essay Paper

Peers

As children become adolescents, they usually begin spending more time with their peers and less time with their families, and these peer interactions are increasingly unsupervised by adults. Children’s notions of friendship often focus on shared activities, whereas adolescents’ notions of friendship increasingly focus on intimate exchanges of thoughts and feelings. During adolescence, peer groups evolve from primarily single-sex to mixed-sex. Adolescents within a peer group tend to be similar to one another in behavior and attitudes, which has been explained as being a function of homophily (adolescents who are similar to one another choose to spend time together in a “birds of a feather flock together” way) and influence (adolescents who spend time together shape each other’s behavior and attitudes). One of the most widely studied aspects of adolescent peer influence is known as deviant peer contagion (Dishion & Tipsord, 2011[3]), which is the process by which peers reinforce problem behavior by laughing or showing other signs of approval that then increase the likelihood of future problem behavior.

Peers can serve both positive and negative functions during adolescence. Negative peer pressure can lead adolescents to make riskier decisions or engage in more problematic behavior than they would alone or in the presence of their family. For example, adolescents are much more likely to drink alcohol, use drugs, and commit crimes when they are with their friends than when they are alone or with their family. However, peers also serve as an important source of social support and companionship during adolescence, and adolescents with positive peer relationships are happier and better adjusted than those who are socially isolated or have conflictual peer relationships.

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Crowds refer to different collections of people, like the “theater kids” or the “environmentalists.” In a way, they are kind of like clothing brands that label the people associated with that crowd. [Image: Garry Knight]Adolescence: Contemporary Issues And Resources Essay Paper

Crowds are an emerging level of peer relationships in adolescence. In contrast to friendships (which are reciprocal dyadic relationships) and cliques (which refer to groups of individuals who interact frequently), crowds are characterized more by shared reputations or images than actual interactions (Brown & Larson, 2009[4]). These crowds reflect different prototypic identities (such as jocks or brains) and are often linked with adolescents’ social status and peers’ perceptions of their values or behaviors.

Romantic relationships

Adolescence is the developmental period during which romantic relationships typically first emerge. Initially, same-sex peer groups that were common during childhood expand into mixed-sex peer groups that are more characteristic of adolescence. Romantic relationships often form in the context of these mixed-sex peer groups (Connolly, Furman, & Konarski, 2000[5]). Although romantic relationships during adolescence are often short-lived rather than long-term committed partnerships, their importance should not be minimized. Adolescents spend a great deal of time focused on romantic relationships, and their positive and negative emotions are more tied to romantic relationships (or lack thereof) than to friendships, family relationships, or school (Furman & Shaffer, 2003[6]). Romantic relationships contribute to adolescents’ identity formation, changes in family and peer relationships, and adolescents’ emotional and behavioral adjustment.

Furthermore, romantic relationships are centrally connected to adolescents’ emerging sexuality. Parents, policymakers, and researchers have devoted a great deal of attention to adolescents’ sexuality, in large part because of concerns related to sexual intercourse, contraception, and preventing teen pregnancies. However, sexuality involves more than this narrow focus. For example, adolescence is often when individuals who are lesbian, gay, bisexual, or transgender come to perceive themselves as such (Russell, Clarke, & Clary, 2009[7]). Thus, romantic relationships are a domain in which adolescents experiment with new behaviors and identities.

Behavioral And Psychological Adjustment

Theories of adolescent development often focus on identity formation as a central issue. For example, in Erikson’s (1968[8]) classic theory of developmental stages, identity formation was highlighted as the primary indicator of successful development during adolescence (in contrast to role confusion, which would be an indicator of not successfully meeting the task of adolescence). Marcia (1966[9]) described identify formation during adolescence as involving both decision points and commitments with respect to ideologies (e.g., religion, politics) and occupations. He described four identity statuses: foreclosure, identity diffusion, moratorium, and identity achievement. Foreclosure occurs when an individual commits to an identity without exploring options. Identity diffusionoccurs when adolescents neither explore nor commit to any identities. Moratorium is a state in which adolescents are actively exploring options but have not yet made commitments. Identity achievement occurs when individuals have explored different options and then made identity commitments. Building on this work, other researchers have investigated more specific aspects of identity. For example, Phinney (1989[10]) proposed a model of ethnic identity development that included stages of unexplored ethnic identity, ethnic identity search, and achieved ethnic identity.Adolescence: Contemporary Issues And Resources Essay Paper

Aggression and antisocial behavior

Early, antisocial behavior leads to befriending others who also engage in antisocial behavior, which only perpetuates the downward cycle of aggression and wrongful acts. [Image: Philippe Put]

Several major theories of the development of antisocial behavior treat adolescence as an important period. Patterson’s (1982[11]) early versus late starter model of the development of aggressive and antisocial behavior distinguishes youths whose antisocial behavior begins during childhood (early starters) versus adolescence (late starters). According to the theory, early starters are at greater risk for long-term antisocial behavior that extends into adulthood than are late starters. Late starters who become antisocial during adolescence are theorized to experience poor parental monitoring and supervision, aspects of parenting that become more salient during adolescence. Poor monitoring and lack of supervision contribute to increasing involvement with deviant peers, which in turn promotes adolescents’ own antisocial behavior. Late starters desist from antisocial behavior when changes in the environment make other options more appealing. Similarly, Moffitt’s (1993[12]) life-course persistent versus adolescent-limited model distinguishes between antisocial behavior that begins in childhood versus adolescence. Moffitt regards adolescent-limited antisocial behavior as resulting from a “maturity gap” between adolescents’ dependence on and control by adults and their desire to demonstrate their freedom from adult constraint. However, as they continue to develop, and legitimate adult roles and privileges become available to them, there are fewer incentives to engage in antisocial behavior, leading to desistance in these antisocial behaviors.

Anxiety and depression

Developmental models of anxiety and depression also treat adolescence as an important period, especially in terms of the emergence of gender differences in prevalence rates that persist through adulthood (Rudolph, 2009[13]). Starting in early adolescence, compared with males, females have rates of anxiety that are about twice as high and rates of depression that are 1.5 to 3 times as high (American Psychiatric Association, 2013[14]). Although the rates vary across specific anxiety and depression diagnoses, rates for some disorders are markedly higher in adolescence than in childhood or adulthood. For example, prevalence rates for specific phobias are about 5% in children and 3%–5% in adults but 16% in adolescents. Anxiety and depression are particularly concerning because suicide is one of the leading causes of death during adolescence. Developmental models focus on interpersonal contexts in both childhood and adolescence that foster depression and anxiety (e.g., Rudolph, 2009[15]). Family adversity, such as abuse and parental psychopathology, during childhood sets the stage for social and behavioral problems during adolescence. Adolescents with such problems generate stress in their relationships (e.g., by resolving conflict poorly and excessively seeking reassurance) and select into more maladaptive social contexts (e.g., “misery loves company” scenarios in which depressed youths select other depressed youths as friends and then frequently co-ruminate as they discuss their problems, exacerbating negative affect and stress). These processes are intensified for girls compared with boys because girls have more relationship-oriented goals related to intimacy and social approval, leaving them more vulnerable to disruption in these relationships. Anxiety and depression then exacerbate problems in social relationships, which in turn contribute to the stability of anxiety and depression over time.Adolescence: Contemporary Issues And Resources Essay Paper

Adolescents spend more waking time in school than in any other context (Eccles & Roeser, 2011[16]). Academic achievement during adolescence is predicted by interpersonal (e.g., parental engagement in adolescents’ education), intrapersonal (e.g., intrinsic motivation), and institutional (e.g., school quality) factors. Academic achievement is important in its own right as a marker of positive adjustment during adolescence but also because academic achievement sets the stage for future educational and occupational opportunities. The most serious consequence of school failure, particularly dropping out of school, is the high risk of unemployment or underemployment in adulthood that follows. High achievement can set the stage for college or future vocational training and opportunities.

Diversity

Adolescent development does not necessarily follow the same pathway for all individuals. Certain features of adolescence, particularly with respect to biological changes associated with puberty and cognitive changes associated with brain development, are relatively universal. But other features of adolescence depend largely on circumstances that are more environmentally variable. For example, adolescents growing up in one country might have different opportunities for risk taking than adolescents in a different country, and supports and sanctions for different behaviors in adolescence depend on laws and values that might be specific to where adolescents live. Likewise, different cultural norms regarding family and peer relationships shape adolescents’ experiences in these domains. For example, in some countries, adolescents’ parents are expected to retain control over major decisions, whereas in other countries, adolescents are expected to begin sharing in or taking control of decision making.Adolescence: Contemporary Issues And Resources Essay Paper

Even within the same country, adolescents’ gender, ethnicity, immigrant status, religion, sexual orientation, socioeconomic status, and personality can shape both how adolescents behave and how others respond to them, creating diverse developmental contexts for different adolescents. For example, early puberty (that occurs before most other peers have experienced puberty) appears to be associated with worse outcomes for girls than boys, likely in part because girls who enter puberty early tend to associate with older boys, which in turn is associated with early sexual behavior and substance use. For adolescents who are ethnic or sexual minorities, discrimination sometimes presents a set of challenges that nonminorities do not face.

Finally, genetic variations contribute an additional source of diversity in adolescence. Current approaches emphasize gene X environment interactions, which often follow a differential susceptibility model (Belsky & Pluess, 2009[17]). That is, particular genetic variations are considered riskier than others, but genetic variations also can make adolescents more or less susceptible to environmental factors. For example, the association between the CHRM2genotype and adolescent externalizing behavior (aggression and delinquency)has been found in adolescents whose parents are low in monitoring behaviors (Dick et al., 2011[18]). Thus, it is important to bear in mind that individual differences play an important role in adolescent development.Adolescence: Contemporary Issues And Resources Essay Paper

Adolescent development is characterized by biological, cognitive, and social changes. Social changes are particularly notable as adolescents become more autonomous from their parents, spend more time with peers, and begin exploring romantic relationships and sexuality. Adjustment during adolescence is reflected in identity formation, which often involves a period of exploration followed by commitments to particular identities. Adolescence is characterized by risky behavior, which is made more likely by changes in the brain in which reward-processing centers develop more rapidly than cognitive control systems, making adolescents more sensitive to rewards than to possible negative consequences. Despite these generalizations, factors such as country of residence, gender, ethnicity, and sexual orientation shape development in ways that lead to diversity of experiences across adolescence.

Adolescence is the period of transition between childhood and adulthood. It includes some big changes—to the body, and to the way a young person relates to the world.

The many physical, sexual, cognitive, social, and emotional changes that happen during this time can bring anticipation and anxiety for both children and their families. Understanding what to expect at different stages can promote healthy development throughout adolescence and into early adulthood.Adolescence: Contemporary Issues And Resources Essay Paper

Early Adolescence (Ages 10 to 13)
During this stage, children often start to grow more quickly. They also begin notice other body changes, including hair growth under the arms and near the genitals, breast development in females and enlargement of the testicles in males. They usually start a year or two earlier in girls than boys, and it can be normal for some changes to start as early as age 8 for females and age 9 for males. Many girls may start their period at around age 12, on average 2-3 years after the onset of breast development.

These body changes can inspire curiosity and anxiety in some―especially if they do not know what to expect or what is normal. Some children may also question their gender identity at this time, and the onset of puberty can be a difficult time for transgender children.

Early adolescents have concrete, black-and-white thinking. Things are either right or wrong, great or terrible, without much room in between. It is normal at this stage for young people to center their thinking on themselves (called “egocentrism”). As part of this, preteens and early teens are often self-conscious about their appearance and feel as though they are always being judged by their peers.

Pre-teens feel an increased need for privacy. They may start to explore ways of being independent from their family. In this process, they may push boundaries and may react strongly if parents or guardians reinforce limits.

Middle Adolescence (Ages 14 to 17)
Physical changes from puberty continue during middle adolescence. Most males will have started their growth spurt, and puberty-related changes continue. They may have some voice cracking, for example, as their voices lower. Some develop acne. Physical changes may be nearly complete for females, and most girls now have regular periods.

At this age, many teens become interested in romantic and sexual relationships. They may question and explore their sexual identity―which may be stressful if they do not have support from peers, family, or community. Another typical way of exploring sex and sexuality for teens of all genders is self-stimulation, also called masturbation.

Many middle adolescents have more arguments with their parents as they struggle for more independence. They may spend less time with family and more time with friends. They are very concerned about their appearance, and peer pressure may peak at this age.Adolescence: Contemporary Issues And Resources Essay Paper

The brain continues to change and mature in this stage, but there are still many differences in how a normal middle adolescent thinks compared to an adult. Much of this is because the frontal lobes are the last areas of the brain to mature―development is not complete until a person is well into their 20s! The frontal lobes play a big role in coordinating complex decision making, impulse control, and being able to consider multiple options and consequences. Middle adolescents are more able to think abstractly and consider “the big picture,” but they still may lack the ability to apply it in the moment. For example, in certain situations, kids in middle adolescence may find themselves thinking things like:

“I’m doing well enough in math and I really want to see this movie… one night of skipping studying won’t matter.”

Do I really have to wear a condom during sex if my girlfriend takes the pill?”

“Marijuana is legal now, so it can’t be that bad.”

While they may be able to walk through the logic of avoiding risks outside of these situations, strong emotions often continue to drive their decisions when impulses come into play.

Late Adolescents (18-21… and beyond!)
Late adolescents generally have completed physical development and grown to their full adult height. They usually have more impulse control by now and may be better able to gauge risks and rewards accurately. In comparison to middle adolescents, youth in late adolescence might find themselves thinking:

“While I do love Paul Rudd movies, I need to study for my final.”

“I should wear a condom…even though my girlfriend is on birth control, that’s not 100% in preventing pregnancy.”

“Even though marijuana is legal, I’m worried about how it might affect my mood and work/school performance.”

Teens entering early adulthood have a stronger sense of their own individuality now and can identify their own values. They may become more focused on the future and base decisions on their hopes and ideals. Friendships and romantic relationships become more stable. They become more emotionally and physically separated from their family. However, many reestablish an “adult” relationship with their parents, considering them more an equal from whom to ask advice and discuss mature topics with, rather than an authority figure.Adolescence: Contemporary Issues And Resources Essay Paper

Social changes and emotional changes: what to expect in adolescence

During adolescence, you’ll notice changes in the way your child interacts with family, friends and peers. Every teen’s social and emotional development is different. Your child’s unique combination of genes, brain development, environment, experiences with family and friends, and community and culture shape development.

Social changes and emotional changes show that your child is forming an independent identity and learning to be an adult.

Social changes
You might notice that your teen is:

searching for identity: young people are busy working out who they are and where they fit in the world. This search can be influenced by gender, peer group, cultural background, media, school and family expectations
seeking more independence: this is likely to influence the decisions your child makes and the relationships your child has with family and friends
seeking more responsibility, both at home and at school
looking for new experiences: the nature of teenage brain development means that teenagers are likely to seek out new experiences and engage in more risk-taking behaviour. But they’re still developing control over their impulses
thinking more about “right” and “wrong”: your child will start developing a stronger individual set of values and morals. Teenagers also learn that they’re responsible for their own actions, decisions and consequences. They question more things. Your words and actions shape your child’s sense of ”right” and “wrong”
influenced more by friends, especially when it comes to behaviour, sense of self and self-esteem
starting to develop and explore a sexual identity: your child might start to have romantic relationships or go on “dates”. These are not necessarily intimate relationships. For some young people, intimate or sexual relationships don’t occur until later on in life
communicating in different ways: the internet, cell phones and social media can significantly influence how your child communicates with friends and learns about the world. Adolescence: Contemporary Issues And Resources Essay Paper

Emotional changes
You might notice that your teen:

shows strong feelings and intense emotions at different times. Moods might seem unpredictable. These emotional ups and downs can lead to increased conflict. Your child’s brain is still learning how to control and express emotions in a grown-up way
is more sensitive to your emotions: young people get better at reading and processing other people’s emotions as they get older. While they’re developing these skills, they can sometimes misread facial expressions or body language
is more self-conscious, especially about physical appearance and changes. Teenage self-esteem is often affected by appearance – or by how teenagers think they look. As they develop, teens might compare their bodies with those of friends and peers
goes through a “invincible” stage of thinking and acting as if nothing bad could happen to him. Your child’s decision-making skills are still developing, and your child is still learning about the consequences of actions.

Changes in relationships
You might notice that your teen:

wants to spend less time with family and more time with friends
has more arguments with you: some conflict between parents and children during the teenage years is normal as teens seek more independence. It actually shows that your child is maturing. Conflict tends to peak in early adolescence. If you feel like you’re arguing with your child all the time, it might help to know that this isn’t likely to affect your long term relationship with your child
sees things differently from you: this isn’t because your child wants to upset you. It’s because your child is beginning to think more abstractly and to question different points of view. At the same time, some teens find it hard to understand the effects of their behaviour and comments on other people. These skills will develop with time.Adolescence: Contemporary Issues And Resources Essay Paper
Supporting social and emotional development

Here are some ideas to help you support your teen’s social and emotional development.

Be a role model for forming and maintaining positive relationships with your friends, children, partner and colleagues. Your child will learn from observing relationships where there is respect, empathy and positive ways of resolving conflict.
Get to know your child’s friends, and make them welcome in your home. This will help you keep in touch with your child’s social relationships. It also shows that you recognize how important your child’s friends are to your child’s sense of self.
Listen to your child’s feelings. If your child wants to talk, stop and give your child your full attention. If you’re in the middle of something, make a specific time when you can listen.
Be explicit and open about your feelings. In particular, tell your child how you feel when your child behaves in different ways. Be a role model for positive ways of dealing with difficult emotions and moods.
Talk with your child about relationships, sex and sexuality. Look for “teachable moments” – those everyday times when you can easily bring up these issues. Focus on the non-physical. Teenagers are often self-conscious and anxious about their bodies and appearance. So reinforce the positive aspects of your child’s social and emotional development.

Staying connected with your teen can be an important part of supporting your child’s social and emotional development.

Children with special needs

It’s normal for parents to worry that their child with disability won’t make friends easily or be accepted into a peer group. It helps to remember that the rate of social and emotional development varies widely for young people.

Teens who miss a lot of school because of a physical or mental illness, or who have a visible physical disability, might find it harder to make and keep friendships. This doesn’t mean that friendships won’t happen. There might be other ways for your child to form friendships, such as joining community groups and online networks. Give your child lots of love and support at home. Boost confidence and self-esteem by focusing on your child’s strengths and interests.Adolescence: Contemporary Issues And Resources Essay Paper

Adolescent Social Development
Social and emotional development are closely intertwined. Both emotional regulation (remaining in control of emotions) and emotional expression (effective communication about emotions) are necessary ingredients for successful and rewarding interpersonal relationships. Furthermore, advanced cognitive development enhances the quality of interpersonal relationships because it enables youth to better understand the wants, needs, feelings, and motivations of others. Therefore, it comes as no surprise that just as youths’ thoughts, emotions, and identities are becoming more complex during adolescence, their social relationships are becoming more complex as well.Adolescents will begin to form many different types of relationships, and many of their relationships will become more deeply involved and more emotionally intimate. During children’s younger years, their social sphere included their family, a few friends, a couple teachers, and perhaps a coach or other adult mentor. But during adolescence, teens’ social networks greatly expand to include many more people, and many different types of relationships. Therefore, adolescent social development involves a dramatic change in the quantity and quality of social relationships.

Psychosocial Development

Social Changes

Peers

Romantic relationships

Early, antisocial behavior leads to befriending others who also engage in antisocial behavior, which only perpetuates the downward cycle of aggression and wrongful acts. [Image: Philippe Put]

The imaginary audience can be detrimental to youth obtaining clinical care and services. For example, youth with chronic illnesses may hide or deny their illnesses for fear that the imaginary audience (peers) may learn about their condition or to prove to the audience that the condition does not exist. It is important to remember that the audience is very real to the adolescent. By being aware and sympathetic to the adolescent’s concerns, as a clinician, you might be able to find solutions to address the health needs and social needs of the patient.

Adolescent Psychosocial Development

The psychosocial development that occurs during this period can be characterized as developmental tasks that emphasize development of autonomy, the establishment of identity, and future orientation.

The first area of adolescent development—establishment of autonomy—occurs when the adolescent strives to become emotionally and economically independent from parents. This struggle begins during early adolescence (ages 12-14 years), which is characterized by forming same-sex peer groups, with decreasing interest in family activities and parental advice. During this time, adolescents are concerned with how they appear to others. The peer group, which is typically same-sex, is often idealized and has a strong influence on the adolescent’s development. As a result, adolescents may use clothing, hairstyles, language, and other accessories to fit in with their peers. Similarly, adolescents who do not identify with any peers may have significant psychological difficulties during this period. Adolescents become less preoccupied with their bodily changes as they approach the end of puberty. The adolescent’s attention shifts from being focused on self to adopting the codes and values of larger peer, parental, or adult groups. Clinicians who treat adolescents can help by discussing with families that this process of pubertal maturation will often require role readjustments among and between family members, which can sometimes result in increased stress and conflict.Adolescence: Contemporary Issues And Resources Essay Paper

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Self-esteem

Self-esteem is how you feel about yourself. The development of a positive self-image and a healthy self-esteem is very important for making a successful transition from child to adult. Here are some suggestions for helping to encourage positive self-esteem in your teen:

Give your child words of encouragement each day.
Remember to point out the things your child does right, not just the mistakes.
Be generous with praise.
Give constructive criticism, and avoid criticism that takes the form of ridicule or shame.
Teach your child about decision-making and make it a point to recognize when he or she has made a good decision.
Help your child learn to focus on his or her strengths by pointing out all of his or her talents and abilities.
Allow your teen to make mistakes. Overprotection or making decisions for teens can be perceived as a lack of faith in their abilities. This can make them feel less confident.
When disciplining your child, replace shame and punishment with positive reinforcement for good behavior. Shame and punishment can make an adolescent feel worthless and inadequate.
Peer pressure

As children grow, they begin to spend more time with their friends and less time with their parents. As a result, friends can influence a child’s thinking and behavior. This is the essence of peer pressure. Peer pressure can be a positive influence—for example, when it motivates your child to do well in school, or to become involved in sports or other activities. On the other hand, peer pressure can be a negative influence—for example, when it prompts your child to try smoking, drinking, using drugs, or to practice unsafe sex or other risky behaviors. Here are some tips to help minimize the negative influences of peer pressure and to maximize the positive:Adolescence: Contemporary Issues And Resources Essay Paper

Develop a close relationship with your child, and encourage open and honest communication. Children who have good relationships with their parents are more likely to seek a parent’s advice about decisions or problems.
Help your child understand what peer pressure is. The child will be better able to resist negative influences if he or she understands what’s happening and why.
Reinforce the values that are important to you and your family.
Nurture your teen’s own abilities and self-esteem so that he or she is not as susceptible to the influences of others.
Teach your child how to be assertive, and praise assertive behavior.
Give your teen breathing room. Don’t expect him or her to do exactly as you say all of the time.
Try to avoid telling your child what to do; instead, listen closely and you may discover more about the issues influencing your child’s behavior.
Provide discipline. Your child needs to understand that there are consequences to negative behaviors.
Tobacco, drugs and alcohol

Drug abuse is a serious problem that can lead to serious, even fatal, consequences. Research suggests that nearly 25 percent of adolescents (ages 12 to 17) have used drugs, with 16 to 18 as the peak age for drinking and drug abuse.

Teens whose parents regularly communicate with them about the dangers of drugs have a decreased risk of using tobacco, alcohol or other drugs. Following are some tips for addressing drugs, alcohol and tobacco use with your teen:

Set a good example. If you smoke, drink heavily or use drugs, you are teaching your child that these behaviors are acceptable.
Teach your child that drugs, tobacco and alcohol can harm their bodies, and that it’s OK to say “no.”
Teach your child how to avoid situations where others may be drinking, smoking or using drugs, and to choose friends who do not use these substances.
Know who your child’s friends are, and don’t allow your child to attend parties where there is no adult supervision.
Encourage your child to become involved in extra-curricular activities at school, a church youth group, or other programs that provide opportunities for teens to gather and socialize in a fun and safe environment.
Teens and sex

Talking with your teenager is important to help him or her develop healthy attitudes toward sex and to learn responsible sexual behavior. Openly discussing sex with your teen also enables you to provide accurate information. After all, teens will learn about sex somewhere. But what they learn might not be true, and might not reflect the personal and moral values and principles you want your children to follow. In addition, teens need to understand the possible consequences of being sexually active—including pregnancy and sexually transmitted diseases, as well as being emotionally hurt.Adolescence: Contemporary Issues And Resources Essay Paper

When you talk to your teen about sex, focus on the facts. Consider using the following list of topics as an outline:

Explanation of anatomy and reproduction in males and females
Sexual intercourse and pregnancy
Fertility and birth control
Other forms of sexual behavior, including oral sex, masturbation, and petting
Sexual orientation, including heterosexuality, homosexuality, and bisexuality
The physical and emotional aspects of sex, including the differences between males and females
Self-image and peer pressure
Sexually transmitted diseases
Rape and date rape, including how being intoxicated (drunk or high), or accepting rides/going to private places with strangers or acquaintances puts you at risk
How choice of clothing and the way you present yourself sends messages to others about your interest in sexual behavior (for example, tongue piercing, wearing low-cut clothing)
Tattoos and piercing

Teens of every generation have their fads. Most teenage fads are harmless and eventually fade away without permanent damage. Unfortunately, some of today’s most popular fads—particularly tattoos and body piercing—can be permanent and can affect your teen’s health. Here are some ideas on how to discuss these fads with your teen:

Don’t wait until your child reaches the teen years to talk about tattoos and piercing. Many younger children look up to teens as role models.
Explain the possible dangers of tattoos and piercings, such as infection or allergic reactions. The risk of infection increases if a tattoo or piercing is done under non-sterile conditions.
Ask your teen to imagine how multiple piercings or tattoos might affect his or her future career or relationships.
Explain that a tattoo may not turn out the way you want, and you can’t take it back if you don’t like it. Further, tattoo removal is very expensive and can be quite painful. In some cases, tattoo removal may cause permanent discoloration of the skin.
Depression and suicide

It is common for teens to occasionally feel unhappy. However, when the unhappiness lasts for more than two weeks and the teen experiences other symptoms (see below), then he or she may be suffering from depression.

There are many reasons why teenagers become unhappy. High-stress environments can lead to depression. Teens can develop feelings of worthlessness and inadequacy over school performance, social interaction, sexual orientation or family life. If friends, family or things that the teen usually enjoys don’t help to improve his or her sadness or sense of isolation, there’s a good chance that he or she is depressed. Often, depressed teens will display a striking change in their thinking and behavior, lose their motivation or become withdrawn. The following are the major signs of depression in adolescents:Adolescence: Contemporary Issues And Resources Essay Paper

Sadness, anxiety or a feeling of hopelessness
Loss of interest in food or compulsive overeating that results in rapid weight loss or gain
Staying awake at night and sleeping during the day
Withdrawal from friends
Rebellious behavior, a sudden drop in grades or skipping school
Complaints of pain including headaches, stomachaches, low back pain or fatigue
Use of alcohol or drugs and promiscuous sexual activity (These are common ways teens cope with depression.)
A preoccupation with death and dying (This often is a cry for help and usually indicates a serious case of depression.)

Depression is a serious problem, but it also is treatable. If you suspect your teen is depressed, tell your child’s health care professional and seek help right away.

Suicide is a serious problem within the teen population. Adolescent suicide is the second leading cause of death among youth and young adults in the United States. It is estimated that 500,000 teens attempt suicide every year, with 5,000 succeeding.

An adolescent has four tasks to accomplish to become a well-adjusted adult. These tasks are categorized as: 1) independence, 2) body image, 3) peer relations, and 4) identity.

Adolescence is divided into three periods; early (ages 12-14), middle (ages 15-17) and late (ages 18-21). Some teens will develop faster in one task than others. Some go through the stages smoothly while others do so with lots of turmoil. Of course, no one goes through adolescence exactly as the model may suggest.Adolescence: Contemporary Issues And Resources Essay Paper

The tasks of adolescence
The move for independence creates the largest amount of distress for parents. Early adolescents begin to pull away from their parents and show less interest in family activities. For example, the teen may refuse to go with the family to the movies or may demonstrate his or her own will by refusing to do chores on the parent’s schedule. Early adolescents are often moody, alternating between being pleasant and nasty toward their families. Usually, the teen is mainly antagonistic towards the most “controlling” parent. Early adolescents crave privacy and desire to control their personal information as they carve out a life separate from that of their parents.

Middle adolescents are often hostile towards parents and authority figures. Some openly rebel while others assert their independence secretively when not under adult supervision. Adults, including physicians, find that many decisions teens make are disturbing and the adults feel frustrated at their lack of control over the teen. Because of their rebellious nature and risk behaviors, middle adolescents are the group that society “loves to hate.”

By late adolescence, most families are comfortable with the youth’s individuality and decision making skills. The teen, gaining confidence with the change in stature, increasingly turns to the parents for advice and guidance in decision-making, though this doesn’t mean they always do what the parent wants. The parent-adolescent interaction is more on an adult-adult level.We were all high school students once. We all remember it, some of us not as fondly as others might. We know it can be a difficult time, though when we were students ourselves, we weren’t aware of the enormity of the physical and psychosocial changes that we were experiencing. Let’s take a look at what that entails…

How is adolescence characterized physically?
Physically speaking, when children enter high school, they are still changing rapidly. They may gain height and experience more muscle development or develop body fat (depending on gender). They will develop secondary sex characteristics, which are: menarche, body hair, acne, increased sweat gland activity, hormonal changes, etc. They will have a greater need for sleep, be more clumsy and be more shy or sensitive about or aware of their changing bodies.

How is adolescence characterized cognitively?
Cognitively speaking, children in adolescence develop a great deal. They tend to develop more complex reasoning and abstract thinking skills as well as developing meta-cognition abilities. This is particularly important to note as an instructor, because we should know what our students are capable of if we want to be effective in helping them learn and achieve. It is also important to understand that teenagers will have a greater awareness of themselves and be self-conscious. Because of this, they will be sensitive to attention and will sometimes feel awkward, which can affect class performance and material retention.

How is adolescence characterized psycho-socially?
Teenagers will be experiencing an identity crisis (as you may well remember from your own high school experience). They will be unsure of themselves, unsure of their future and unsure of how they want to proceed. This is also a time when teenagers are seeking independence and autonomy. They will want to make their own decisions and use their own morality scale. Friendships and intimacy are important to adolescents and this will be a major priority. Peers have a great influence on behaviors and attitudes, particularly in early adolescence (Stang 6). Lastly, they will be concerned about what the future holds and will need guidance.Adolescence: Contemporary Issues And Resources Essay Paper

What does this mean for me as a high school teacher?
As an instructor of adolescent students, one must be careful, encouraging, motivational, sensitive, understanding, and patient. Being knowledgeable about one’s content area is not enough. One needs to have an understanding of the physical and psychological needs of one’s students. It is important to communicate, show support, set firm boundaries for behavior, respect their need for space and privacy within reason, and provide praise for successes in the classroom.

The physician should take into account this move toward independence and help parents appropriately give the teen responsibility for medical care. For instance, an early adolescent may need to be reminded to take his daily medication while a middle adolescent should not. By late adolescence, the patient should be encouraged to make his own appointments, monitor medication needs and get prescriptions filled. Failing to recognize this move towards independence makes the physician prone to appearing as an “agent of the parent” and may make it more difficult to gain the confidence of the teen.

Adolescents become aware of their physical development and the fact that it portends adulthood. Most early adolescents are not sure what to think of the changes in their body and accompanying hygienic responsibilities. Body odor, axillary hair, acne and menstrual cramps are not exactly thrilling. Being “normal” is a huge concern to early adolescents and leads to constant comparisons to others. Common questions include “is my penis long enough?”, “are my breasts large enough?”, and “is it normal for one testicle to hang lower than the other?” Pubertal gynecomastia or physiologic vaginal discharge can be terrifying to a teen.

Middle adolescents are more at ease with the changes and want to make the most of their “new” body. Clothing, jewelry and makeup become big with this group. Taking care of issues such as acne or unwanted hair (e.g., eyebrows) becomes paramount. Weightlifting and dieting become important as well. With the gain in confidence comes increased interest in the opposite sex. This is often the onset of dating and the development of skills and behaviors related to sexual relationships.

By late adolescence, teens are comfortable with the changes in their body. Pelvic exams or hernia checks are not as stressful. Many adolescents are now ready to deal with issues such as birth control. Sexual relationships become less exploring and exploitative and more loving and sharing.

Peers become extremely important during adolescence. As they pull away from their family, early adolescents are not strong enough to stand on their own and they turn to their peers for guidance and support. By mid-adolescence, the peer group exerts a huge influence over the teen. At this time, peer groups demand that members conform as this reduces stress related to decision-making. If the group wears black clothing and lipstick, then the all the members must do the same. To do otherwise would risk exclusion from the group. Unfortunately, this also includes risk behaviors such as sexual activity or substance use, and participation in gangs.

Middle adolescents may share intense personal relationships with the group. As teens become more comfortable with their own decision making and independence, peer groups hold less sway. By late adolescence, peer groups do not demand the same level of conformity. It is all right to attend a party and not drink when others are drinking. Individuality is more acceptable. Often times, late adolescents will grieve over the fact that their relationships with friends are not as close and have become less intense.

A useful strategy for providers is to ask about the risk behaviors of the teen’s friends, since teens are often more comfortable sharing information about friends than about themselves. This enables the physician to explore the adolescent’s feelings and knowledge of risk behaviors.

Identity development includes the emergence of abstract reasoning along with personal values and morals. Early adolescents tend to be concrete and see things in black and white. A girl, taught that she will get pregnant if she has sex, assumes she does not have to worry about birth control because she had unprotected sex once and did not get pregnant. The limited ability to think abstractly makes it hard for a teen to see another’s point of view and also makes compromise difficult. Lack of abstract thinking also encourages feelings of invulnerability. Teens believe that nothing bad will happen to them no matter what. They trust that they can have sex, use drugs, smoke, or drive recklessly without consequence.

The values and morals of the early adolescent are those of the parents. As they attempt to pull away from the family and move closer to peers, teens’ values mirror those of their friends. Usually by the end of adolescence, the teens’ morals and values come back in line with those of their family.

During middle adolescence (ages 15-17 years), the peer group becomes a mixed-sex peer group and assumes a primary social role for the adolescent. Adolescents begin to have short, intense “love” relationships, while looking for the “ideal” partner. It is not uncommon for adolescents to have crushes on adults during this stage. Family conflict is likely to be at its peak. As adolescents’ independent functioning increases, adolescents may examine their personal experiences, relate their experience to others, and develop a concern for others.Adolescence: Contemporary Issues And Resources Essay Paper

By late adolescence (ages 18-21 years), adolescents have developed a separate identity from parents. Simultaneously, adolescents may move away from their peer group and strive to achieve adult status. Adolescent conflict with parents may very well decline during this stage. As adolescents begin to enter more permanent relationships, they establish responsible behavior and their personal value system matures.

Pediatric health care professionals should be aware that most adolescents seek independence in a gradual fashion, and a sudden shift from parents can be a warning sign that the adolescent needs help in transitioning. In fact, some studies have demonstrated that 11-year-old girls spend 68% of their time with family and 22% with friends compared with 46% and 44%, respectively, in 18-year-old girls. Anticipatory guidance for parents about the emerging needs of independence will help to inform parents about this important developmental stage, provide guidance in promoting independence in a safe setting, and alleviate some of the problems experienced in the family. Development of clinic policies that promote an adolescent’s need for privacy, confidentiality, and involvement in decision-making can aid in this transition.

The second task of adolescence is for youth to develop a sense of identity. Identity relates to one’s sense of self. It can be divided into 2 areas: self-concept and self-esteem. Self-concept refers to an adolescent’s perception of self—one’s talents, goals, and life experiences. It can also relate to identity as part of ethnic, religious, and sexual identity groups. Self-esteem relates to how one evaluates self-worth.

In 1950, Erikson described the psychosocial crisis that was occurring during this stage as “identity vs. role confusion” (13-19 years). As adolescents transition into adults, they start to think about their roles in adulthood. Initially, it is common for adolescents to experience role confusion about their identity and describe mixed ideas and feelings about the specific ways in which they feel they fit into society. As a result, they may experiment with a range of behaviors and activities to sort out this identity. Adolescents may experiment with different peer groups or different styles of dress or behavior as a way of searching for their identity. Some degree of rebellion away from the family’s image is part of the adolescent’s search for identity.Adolescence: Contemporary Issues And Resources Essay Paper

Erikson described that an adolescent’s inability to settle on an identity or career path can result in identity crisis. Although this stage likely lasts for a short period, because of the current extension of adolescence and young adulthood, with more youth obtaining advanced degrees or vocational training, it may take more time for youth to establish their identity. Adolescents with a chronic illness may have a harder time developing a positive identity or self-image because of the impact of the illness on body image and the limited ability to achieve independence. Pediatric health care professionals can support adolescent identity development by encouraging parents to allow adolescents to have the space and time to independently make health care decisions and to participate in and explore a range of activities that can promote this development.

Inadequate development of self-identity can result in poor self-esteem in the adolescent. Poor self-image and esteem have been associated with poor adjustment (depression or suicide), school underachievement, substance use, and other risk-taking behaviors. Educating parents about the importance of praise and acceptance during this stage may be helpful to ensure that adolescents emerge from it with a secure identity.

The ability for future orientation is the third area of adolescent psychosocial development. This stage usually occurs during late adolescence (ages 18-21 years). Youth have gained the cognitive maturity that is necessary to develop realistic goals pertaining to future vocation or career, have developed a sense of self-identity, and are most likely refining their moral, religious, and sexual values. It is during this time that youth also expect to be treated as an adult. As autonomy increases, youth are given more responsibility. They are also provided with more access to alcohol and drugs.

Adolescence is also characterized by the development of emotional and social competence. Emotional competence relates to the ability to manage emotions, whereas social competence focuses on one’s ability to relate effectively with others. During this process, adolescents become more aware of being able to identify and label their own feelings and the feelings of others.Adolescence: Contemporary Issues And Resources Essay Paper

The rate of emotional and cognitive development does not parallel the rate of physical maturation. Dr Deborah Yurgelun-Todd, director of Neuropsychology and Cognitive Neuroimaging at McLean Hospital in Belmont, Massachusetts, compared magnetic resonance images of adults and teenagers to demonstrate how cognitive development does not occur simultaneously with emotional development in adolescents. Unlike in the adult brain, where both the limbic area of the brain (emotion center) and the prefrontal cortex (judgment and reasoning center) are enhanced when viewing images that expressed fear, in the adolescent brain, after seeing the same images, the limbic area is enhanced, with almost no activity in the prefrontal cortex. Such emotional-cognitive asynchrony can result in adolescents misinterpreting other’s feelings and emotions, whereas emotional-physical asynchrony can result in adolescents being treated as older than their emotional stage of development.

Early rapid pubertal development in girls and boys may significantly affect body image and social performance. Early maturing boys are often perceived as older and more responsible. In general, they perform better on team sports than boys who mature late and, as a result, may be more popular and seen as class leaders. However, timing and duration of puberty appear to matter. In a study by Ge et al, boys who were physically more developed in seventh grade, compared with their less physically developed peers, manifested more externalized hostile feelings and internalized distress symptoms in grades 8 through 10. Early maturation may predispose girls to social disadvantage. Early maturation has been identified as a risk factor for conduct problems, depression, early substance use, poor body image, pregnancy, and early sexual initiation.Adolescence: Contemporary Issues And Resources Essay Paper

Management or self-regulation of emotions is an important process in any adolescent. Research has found that an increased level of testosterone during puberty can result in swelling of the amygdala, the area of the brain critical in emotional regulation. Health care professionals can help adolescents recognize triggers and symptoms of out-of-control emotions and use reasoning skills to step back, examine emotions, and consider long-term consequences of behavior.

The pediatric health care professional is poised to educate adolescents and their parents about the psychosocial and developmental aspects of adolescence. Explaining that the adolescent’s physical development may be asynchronous with the psychosocial, emotional, and cognitive development may help to avoid unrealistic expectations and smooth the process. It is helpful to provide adolescents with appropriate education about the social and emotional changes that occur during this timeframe. The goal of youth during this stage is to gain independence and establish a secure identity of who they are. Recommendation to parents and guardians to continue to provide parental or supervisory monitoring and model positive health behaviors and conflict resolution is critical for ensuring that teens remain safe while gradually becoming more independent.

There are different parental styles that have been demonstrated to be helpful. The American Academy of Pediatrics endorses the authoritative style where parents have a balanced approach with unconditional love, combined with clear boundaries and consistent discipline. This perspective is based on research demonstrating that adolescents who have an authoritative parent are less depressed, enter into risk-taking behaviors at later ages, and succeed better academically than parents who use other approaches. It is also important for parents to recognize that parental acceptance of adolescent separation and identity formation is necessary for healthy self-esteem and self-concept and enables the adolescent to return to the family later.Adolescence: Contemporary Issues And Resources Essay Paper

Clinicians can use the primary care visit to promote independence among adolescents. Starting during early adolescence, the parent and the adolescent should be seen together initially to assess the emotional and psychiatric health of adolescents and understand how family dynamics may contribute to symptoms experienced, identify not only sources of stress within families but predominant modes of coping with stress, and encourage parental involvement with the adolescent’s school, extracurricular activities, and knowledge about their child’s friends. These steps can protect against future delinquency and risk-taking behavior.

Spending time separately with the parent and the adolescent can help the adolescent independently be able to voice concerns about health information while simultaneously building confidence. Health care professionals can use the interview time to ask open-ended questions that allow the adolescent to consider a range of options, help the adolescent understand how emotions can affect decision-making, and identify skill-building activities that promote self-esteem, independence, and self-management of medical conditions.

As adolescents’ relationships evolve, they may become interested in dating, intimacy, and sex-related experimentation. Health care professionals should create a climate that is sensitive to personal issues, including sexual identity development and sexual orientation, so that youth feel comfortable discussing different types of sexual activity, fantasies, and attractions. Adolescents will also need appropriate health information about avoiding risk-taking behavior, such as drug use and unsafe sexual behavior, skills that enhance their ability to negotiate difficult situations with peers, and career guidance.

Clinicians’ advice or explanation should be adapted to the cognitive level of the adolescent. Adolescence is also an appropriate time for clinicians to discuss career options for youth. Resources can include local or distant college, military service, or a specific program, such as Job Corps. Job Corps is a comprehensive residential, educational, and job-training program that has assisted approximately 2 million adolescents and young adults gain the vocational and social skills training necessary to obtain long-term jobs and further their education.Adolescence: Contemporary Issues And Resources Essay Paper

Resources are available for clinicians to help in guiding the adolescent through the critical stages of adolescent cognitive and psychosocial development. The American Academy of Pediatrics’ Bright Futures Guidelines for Health Supervision of Infants, Children, and Adolescents, a developmentally organized, practical resource for clinicians, and the Teen Years Explained, a practical guide for adolescents, parents, and clinicians developed by the Center for Adolescent Health at Johns Hopkins School of Public Health, are 2 resources that can be used to help adolescents and their families successfully reach young adulthood. Adolescence: Contemporary Issues And Resources Essay Paper

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